Battle of Cape Ecnomus : Bloodiest Naval Battle between Rome and Carthage (First Punic War)

Battle of Cape Ecnomus (256 BC) was the largest and bloodiest naval engagement between Rome and Carthage in First Punic War (264-261 BC). It was the third major battle between these two super powers of Mediterranean. This battle put Roman navy in number one position and pushed Carthaginian navy to the second spot. It showed the Battle of Mylae was not a fluke. In Battle of Mylae Carthaginian navy was not ready for "Corvus" (The hook like boarding device used by roman navy) and Rome caught them off guard. Here Carthage was prepared and tried to avoid and counter "Corvus" as much as they could but it was not enough. Roman naval tactics also developed and improved during this period. So, this battle was also the battle of two different tactics which ended in Roman victory. It was one of the largest naval battle of ancient era. Both sides used all they had in this naval engagement. Carthage lost this battle after a long fight and road to Africa was opened for a roman expedition.

Battle of Cape Ecnomus

Prelude : After a shocking victory in Battle of Mylae (260 BC), The confidence of roman navy greatly boosted up. At this stage they planned an expedition in Carthaginian settlements in Africa. They were confident that their army could defeat Carthage. It was a risky plan because they had to neutralize the formidable Carthaginian navy. Carthage faced a stunning defeat in Mylae but their fleet was still powerful. Moreover they continuously patrolling their water to stop any expedition from Rome. In Mylae they took roman navy lightly but after Mylae situation had changed. They were now aware about the strength of roman navy and determined to stop their advance in Africa. After Mylae Carthage managed to defeat Roman army in Battle of Thermae (259 BC) under the command of Hamilcar (Not Hamilcar Barca). So, Carthage was not defeated and they still had the strength to counter roman attempt. Rome realized they had to transfer their troops in military ships because transport ships would be vulnerable if they got attacked. So, They built a fleet of 330 ships to guard the transportation of their expeditionary force to Africa. The two consuls Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus were the commanders of the fleet. Roman transport ships set sail for Africa under the protection of their navy. Near Cape Ecnomus of Sicilian coast they encountered a large Carthaginian fleet and the battle began.

Naval Strength : Rome had 330 ships and around 140000 men including marines. Carthage had 350 ships and around 150000 men including marines. Carthaginian fleet was commanded by Hanno (The defeated general of Battle of Agrigentum) and Hamilcar (The victor of Battle of Thermae).

Fleet Engagement in Battle Cape Ecnomus

The Battle : Main goal of roman navy to protect their transport ships. So, they formed three squadrons. The first two squadrons were advance guards and formed a wedge formation. The transport ships were under middle and the third squadron formed a straight line to protect the rear. Carthaginians faced them with conventional straight line. After seeing the Carthaginian fleet the first two squadrons advanced in wedge formation. Hamilcar was waiting for that and he started retreating slowly to lure the advanced squadrons away from transport ships. Soon a big gap formed between the transport ships and the advanced squadrons. The both wings of Carthaginian fleet now bypassed the advanced squadrons and attacked the transport ships in the middle. The tactics worked. The transport ships were vulnerable to these attacks and were pushed to the coast of Sicily. The left wing was busy with Transport ships and the right wing under Hanno was stopping the third squadron from reaching the transport ships. It was a brilliant plan and the execution was also going well but luck was not with Carthage that day. Hamilcar's forces were defeated by the advanced squadron's and he had to retreat with his remaining ships. Now the squadrons turned back and attacked the Carthaginian wings. One squadron attacked the left wing which was busy with transport ships and another attacked Hanno in the right wing. That turned the tide of the battle. Without any support from the center the left wing was destroyed and Hanno was under heavy attack from both sides. Soon most of his ships were sunk or captured and the battle was over.

Casualties : Roman loss was minimal compared to the Carthaginian loss. Rome lost 24 ships and around 10000 men in this battle while Carthage lost 94 ships (sunk or captured) and around 35000 men. Most of the ships were lost during the last stage of the battle.

Battle of Cape Ecnomus

Aftermath : Carthaginian fleet suffered a great damage in this battle. Most of their ships were not in a position to stop the roman expedition of Africa. Rome also suffered losses and they had to anchor for repairing and resupply their transport ships. But the threat from Carthaginian navy was over and they could now pursue their goal to Africa. Soon after they landed their expeditionary force in Africa. I will cover it in my next post.    

     

Battle of Mylae : Roman Triumph over Carthaginian Navy (First Punic War)

Battle of Mylae was fought between two Mediterranean super powers Rome and Carthage in 260 BC. It was one of the most important battles of First Punic War (264-241 BC) which ended in Roman victory. In this battle the innovative ideas and equipment applied by Roman navy took the upper hand over much more experienced Carthaginian navy. The defeat weakened Carthaginian fleet and showed the strength of Roman navy.

Battle of Mylae

Prelude : After defeating Carthage in Battle of Agrigentum (262 BC), Roman confidence in their capability was highly increased. Rome didn't challenge Carthaginian navy before and was reluctant to do that. Carthage controlled the Mediterranean water for centuries. They were Phoenician people and had a long history and experience in naval warfare. Challenging them in naval battle could be disastrous for Rome but they had no option. As long as Carthaginian navy was active in Sicily, the roman control would always be in threat. That time Rome didn't have proper ships for battle also. They borrowed some quinqueremes from Greeks but countering Carthaginian quinqueremes with that would be a problem. One story said Romans captured a wrecked Carthaginian quinquereme and replicated the design to build their fleet of 150 quinqueremes and triremes. However, the first encounter with Carthage didn't go well for Rome. Carthaginians defeated and captured 17 Roman quinqueremes in Battle of the Lipari Islands (260 BC). Though it was a skirmish between two sides (Only 17 and 20 Ships from both sides engaged) but Rome learned the lesson. They realized that the Carthaginian navy could be countered if Rome was able to utilize their superior heavy infantry in naval battle. So, they invented "Corvus". Corvus was a hook like boarding device. By using it Romans could pull Carthaginian ships and board them. After boarding the Carthaginian ships, roman heavy infantry could finish the job. Consul Gaius Duilius became the commander of roman navy after Battle of Lipari Islands. The roman fleet encountered Carthaginian fleet near northern Mylae and battle started.

Map

Naval Strength : Rome had 103 quinqueremes and some triremes at the beginning of the battle. The strength of the roman fleet was around 120 ships. Carthaginian fleet had 130 ships as stated by Greek historian Polybius.

Corvus

The Battle : The battle was a disaster for Carthage. Unaware of new roman boarding device (Corvus) they attacked the roman fleet in conventional straight line. Romans were awaiting for that and hooked first 30 Carthaginian ships which were closed enough and captured those. Now Carthaginians tried to flank the roman fleet to attack them from side or behind but unfortunately that also didn't work. Romans captured 20 more ships in the process. After witnessing that Hannibal, the Carthaginian general (Same from Battle of Agrigentum), retreated with his remaining 80 ships and for the first time Rome got his naval victory over Carthage.

Battle of Mylae

Aftermath : Capturing 70 ships with almost no damage increased the size of roman fleet. The victory also boosted the confidence of roman navy. On the other hand Carthage couldn't find the solution to counter that new roman technique. After that defeat Carthaginian navy was in back foot for the first time. Though they still had a considerable number of ships but their confidence and moral was affected by that defeat. It was the second major battle of First Punic war but the war was still on. I will cover the next important battle of this war in my next post.           

Battle of Agrigentum : First Major Battle of Rome against Carthage (First Punic War)

Battle of Agrigentum in 362 BC was the first major battle of First Punic War (264 - 241 BC). This battle was a severe blow to the Carthaginian dream of expansion in Sicily and Sardinia. Significance of this battle was the superiority of Roman infantry upon Carthaginian mercenary army. It showed and proved the roman strength in land battles. It was just the beginning of a long and bloody rivalry and wars between these two superpowers of the ancient world.

Battle of Agrigentum

Prelude : After Carthage acquired their strong foothold as Messana in Sicily they started their expansion in the island. Their primary opposition was strong and formidable Greek city of Syracuse and other small Greek colonies in that island . Romans were not in the picture at first but presence of Carthage in Sicily alarmed the roman senate. If they did not take any step against that, the future expansion would be Italian mainland and Rome itself. So, they had to act and declared war on Carthage. Some small battles were fought between these two factions here and there but the real full scale battle never took place. After Carthage tried to expand their territory in lands under roman sphere of influence they decided to send an expeditionary force under Lucius Postamius Magellus and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus. Both were consuls of Roman republic. Consuls were the main generals of Roman republic and sending Consuls meant the matter was serious. Romans landed on Sicily with combined force of 40000 men and besieged the Carthaginian main base of operation in the island Agrigentum.

Agrigentum

Siege of Agrigentum : Hannibal Gisco was in charge of the Carthaginian operation in Sicily when Romans besieged the city. Hannibal didn't have many soldiers while Romans showed up at the  area. So, he quickly recruited local militias and  retreated inside the city wall. Romans expected a pitch battle but Hannibal didn't give them that chance. Roman soldiers camped outside the area and started harvesting the crops in that area to resupply themselves. Hannibal was waiting for this and attacked unarmed roman soldiers with his army. Initially they inflicted a notable damage on Romans but later somehow stopped the Carthaginian attempt of invading their camp and repelled them. Hannibal lost a notable number of men and was reluctant to attack the Romans in future with inexperienced militia heavy army. Romans realized that to force Hannibal in open battle they had to besiege the city. So, they cut the supply lines of Agrigentum and built posts around the city. The shortage of food supply became imminent and for relief Hannibal sent message to Carthage and plead for help. Soon a big Carthaginian army of 50000 under Hanno arrived and cut the roman supply line with Syracuse. Now Romans were facing the food problem. Hanno wanted to fight the roman in his terms and had a plan to force the trapped and weakened Romans to attack him. But Agrigentum was besieged for more than six months and the situation in the city was dire. Hannibal understood the situation was going out of hand and sending signals after signal to Hanno for breaking the siege. Soon, witnessing the situation in the city Hanno forced to attack the Romans and battle began.

First Punic War

The Armies : Roman army was infantry heavy army. Around 35000 were infantry with a notable number of cavalry. The Hanno's army was around 45000 infantry with 4000-5000 cavalry and a lot of war elephants (Number varied from 30-60). The garrison of few thousand from Agrigentum also joined the fight.

The Battle : As per sources, Hanno deployed his army in two lines against roman triplex system. He deployed himself and his elephants in second line and cavalry on the wings. Hanno planned a coordinated attack with the garrison from Agrigentum but Romans also expected that. So, they set an ambush for Hanno and attacked him from rear and front.  They also prevented Hannibal's garrison to join with Hanno's army.  Carthaginian infantry was outmatched against roman heavy infantry and after a long fight Romans broke the Carthaginian first line. The second line was panicked by this and fled the battle. Romans pursued the fleeing Carthaginian army and captured the Carthaginian camp with several elephants. Hanno retreated with his remaining army. One day later Hannibal also fled the city in middle of night. Romans captured the undefended city and sold the citizens to slavery.

Battle of Agrigentum

Casualties : The Roman loss was much higher in the battle compared to Carthaginian. As per sources, they lost around 15000 to 30000 men in this campaign. Carthage lost around 7000 men and 40 elephants. Despite that heavy loss Romans achieved their goal and drove out Carthage from Sicily and Sardinia.

Fall of Agrigentum

Aftermath : Battle of Agrigentum was first victory of Rome outside Italian mainland. It boosted their confidence and could be treated as the stepping stone of their great future empire. Loosing Agrigentum shattered the Carthaginian dream of acquiring Sicily and Sardinia. The Carthaginian army was still large and Hanno and Hannibal both were able to retreat with their men. The First Punic War was just started and the power struggle was still on. Both factions would meet soon in Battle of Mylae (260 BC).        

Battle of Cynoscephalae : Roman Legion against Macedonian Phalanx

Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC) was the clash of two effective battle formations. Roman maniple system against the famous Macedonian phalanx formation. Romans won that battle. This battle showed more weaknesses of phalanx formation than previously known. The superiority of Roman maniple system was established after the stunning victory it delivered over phalanx.

Battle of Cynoscephalae

Prelude : During the 2nd Punic War (218-201 BC) Philip V of Macedon sided with Carthage and attacked and raided many Roman client states in Mediterranean. Romans couldn't do anything during that time cause they were under a bigger threat from Hannibal. After the war ended Romans turned their attention towards Philip. The Greek city states were already wanted to free from Macedonian influence and asked Rome for help, which the later obliged by sending an army of around 25000 men under Titus Quinctius Flamininus. Greek city states also provided a small army to assist him. Romans with allied forces marched in search of Philip who was in Larissa at that time. Philip heard the news and assembled an army of 27000 men to counter the Romans. Both armies met near Cynoscephalae Hills and the battle started.

Macedonia 

Armies : Romans had nearly 20000 legionaries (Heavy infantry) with 2000 light infantry, 2500 cavalry and 20 war elephants. The allied army consisted of soldiers from Greek city states, mercenary archers from Crete and light infantry from Athamania. Philip had 16000 phalangites, 4000 light infantry and 2000 cavalry. He also had an army of 5000 provided by his allies (Crete, Illyria and Thrace).

Phalanx vs Legions

The Battle : The battle started in the morning under heavy fog between small forces from two sides. Phillip sent a small force to capture the Cynoscephalae Hill. Here Flamininus, unaware of Macedonian presence nearby, sent a small force for scouting. Both forces discovered each other on the hill and a heavy fighting started between them. Hearing the news Flamininus dispatched 2000 infantry and 500 cavalry as reinforcement. They started pushing back the Macedonians from the hill. Now Philip sent another army to counter it. Macedonians started taking the upper hand and pushed back the Romans down to the hill which was stabilized by Greek cavalry sent by Flamininus Now Phillip marched with his phalangites towards Romans. He placed himself alongwith his most experienced 8000 phalangites on right half of his army and placed the rest on left half to attack the roman right. Despite the hilly terrain the right half of phalanx was doing well against the roman left but his left half was struggling against the roman right. The left side was getting difficulties in forming the tight phalanx formation which was the key of success of that formation. So, soon a big gap was formed between Phillip's right half and left half. The Romans were advancing upwords to the hill on Macedonian left half and Macedonians were advancing downwards against the Roman left half. This was the moment when a roman tribune of advancing roman right half saw that gap. He took his 20 legionaries and broke away from right and attacked the Macedonian right half from rear. The phalangites were surprised and completely helpless in that situation and the panic broke out. Soon, 2000 more legionaries joined the fight and phalanx formation totally disrupted. Romans started cutting down the Macedonians and the battle was over. Phillip fled the battlefield and the Macedonian loss was overwhelming. Nearly 8000 were killed and others captured or fled. A quick presence of mind from a lower rank officer just turned the tide of entire battle. Romans won a stunning victory.

The Battle

The Losses : The roman loss was nominal compared to the Macedonians. Only 700 were killed and 2000 were wounded. The loss on Macedonian side was huge. Nearly 8000 were killed and 5000 were captured and rest fled.

Aftermath : The battle showed the superiority of roman maniple system against the Macedonian phalanx. Phalanx formation was a strong and formidable formation but it needed a flat and wide terrain to form the phalanx formation to deliver desired result. It was not flexible as roman maniple system where the army could fight in small groups and could also form a solid line as per the situation. The versatility of that system took upper hand on that formidable phalanx formation. Phalanx was excellent for frontal assault and could beat any army any day if it had the suitable terrain but totally weak on sides and rear. Phillip may have won the battle if the terrain was suitable for his phalanx. After that Phillip sued peace on roman terms. He had to disband his navy and a large portion of his army. He also paid a large sum of indemnity and sent his son to Rome as hostage. This battle hampered the Macedonian influence and prestige greatly and established roman superiority in the region.              

Saragarhi : Famous Last Stand of 21 Sikhs

Battle of Saragarhi (1897) was famous for the last stand of 21 Sikh soldiers of British Indian Army against the Afghan tribesmen over six thousands. The Afghans attacked the fort but repelled twice by the Sikh soldiers guarding it. They attacked again and the defenders were killed but they bought the time for the reinforcements to arrive and end  the uprising. The Sikh soldiers who gave their lives in that battle were commemorated with the highest bravery award of British India government. Which was equivalent to Victoria cross.

Soldiers of 36th Sikhs

Prelude : The Battle of Saragarhi was happened during the Tirah Campaign or Tirah Expedition (1897-1898) of British India. To neutralize the uprising of Afghan Tribes (Afridi and Orakzais) the British Indian Army started this campaign to secure the North Western Frontier Province (Khhyber Pakhtunkhawa in Pakistan). 36th Sikhs under Lt. Colonel Houghton took charge of five frontier forts including Saragarhi Fort. It was situated between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan (Both built by Sikh Emperor Ranjit Singh). Because of the terrain the visibility was blocked between the two forts. So, British Government built Fort Saragarhi in the middle to maintain the communication between the forts. The situation was already volatile in that region and Afghan tribes already attacked several places. When the Fort Saragarhi was attacked only 21 non commissioned Sikh soldiers were stationed there.

The Map of Saragarhi

Armies : The 36th Sikhs soldiers were armed with Martini-Henry rifle with bayonets on top. The afghan tribesmen also got the rifles and used those against the imperial troops. In Saragrhi Fort only 21 Sikhs were stationed to hold the fort against 6000-10000 Afghans.

Saragarhi

The Battle : The battle started on 12th September, 1897. Though a series of attacks were already made by the afghans to capture the fort but repelled by the 36th Sikh regiment. But in the morning of 12th September around 6000 afghans attacked the fort. Sepoy Gurumukh Singh signaled to Fort Lockhart about the attack. Col. Houghton signaled back and stated that they were unable to send force immediately. After receiving that news those 21 brave soldiers decided to fight to the death to prevent the enemy from taking the fort. Battle started and they fought valiantly but the number was against them. Sepoy Bhagwan Singh died first. Others retreated to the inner layer. Afghans were succeeded in breaking a portion of the wall. Then they attempted to talk them out by making promises of safe passage upon surrender but all went in vain. They made two attempts to break open the gate but repelled by the defenders. After a series of attempt the wall was breached and a bloody hand to hand combat started. It was reported that Havilder Ishar Singh ordered his soldiers to retreat to the inner layer while himself holding the enemy to buy the time for them. However, all his soldiers except one died because of the breach. Sepoy Gurumukh Singh was the last defender and he was in charge of communication with Col Houghton. Report said he defended his post bravely and killed 20 Afghans. Afghans set fire on the post to kill him. He fought to the last and died. The Afghans took the fort and the battle ended.

Sikh Soldiers

Aftermath : The Afghans then attacked Fort Gulistan but the reinforcements arrived and the attackers were defeated by the artillery fire. The British Indian Army retook Saragarhi. The valiant effort of 21 Sikhs bought the valuable time for the reinforcements to arrive. Those 21 brave soldiers were commemorated with the highest honor of the British Indian Army. They are still remembered. The Indian Army celebrated 12th September as Saragarhi Day.  

Sikh Regiment of Indian Army

Companion Cavalry : Alexander's Finest Horsemen

Companion cavalry were famous bodyguards of Alexander the great and accompanied him in his successive campaign in Asia. They were from the Macedonian noble class and renowned horsemen. Their skill neutralized their Persian counterpart throughout his campaign in Persian empire. They played their role as bodyguard very well and saved Alexander's life in many occasions. Alexander always preferred to fight on the frontline. So, he endangered himself sometimes in battles. Most famous of them was in Gaugamela in 330 BC. There he was saved by one of his bodyguards.

Companion Cavalry

Origin : Macedon had a reputation for its cavalry long before Alexander's father Phillip of Macedon. But before Phillip became king most of them presumably died with his brother Perdiccas III in his war against Illyrians. To fill up the vacuum Phillip granted nobility to his supporters and conscripted them in companion cavalry. He also conscripted cavalry from other Greek states like Thessaly and Crete to increase the size of the cavalry and infantry. So, we can say that, he rebuilt the companion cavalry. He made some new changes in training and tactics of the cavalry. The result was outstanding when he used them against Illyrians in 357 BC and won. Young Alexander also led these companions in battle during Phillip's campaign against the Greek states. After Phillips's assassination Alexander became the king. He also made some small changes in equipment designs of his Companion cavalry.

Companion Cavalry Charge

Equipment : The primary weapon of companion cavalry was a 2 meter long lance called "Xyston". The secondary weapon was a short sword called "Kopis". For armor they used bronze or leather cuirass along with bronze greaves and iron helmet. The preliminary design of the helmet was Phrygian but in later stages it was modified to Boetian style. They also wore bronze gorgets around neck.

Companion Helmet

Structure : The structure of companion cavalry was a 200 horsemen unit called "Ile". Names of the Iles were based on the home regions of those horsemen. Every Ile had one squadron commander. Among the Iles one was consist of 300 horsemen. That was royal squadron or "Basilike Ile"

Tactics : Phillip introduced wedge formation to his companion cavalry which he learned from the Illyrians during his war with them. This formation was triangular shaped. The formation had one big advantage. Because of its arrow headed shape, it could exploit any gap on enemy line and devastate the enemy formation. Though it was useless against solid line. So, it needed help from infantry to form the gaps. The best and famous example of its devastating effect was in Gaugamela, where Alexander charged on the gap of Persian center and devastated it.

Wedge Formation

Famous Battles : The companion cavalry fought many famous battles during Alexander's Persain campaign and proved their effectiveness. Most famous was in Gaugamela, which I mentioned earlier. They also saved the day for Alexander in Battle of Issus, where they routed the Persian left flank and attacked Persian center from behind.

Legacy : After Alexander's death the name "Companion" cavalry was changed. The successor kingdoms had different names for their companion cavalry. The equipment also changed according to the factions. Like Seleucid companion cavalry had more armors and heavier than Alexander's version. Similarly, Antigonid and Ptolemaic companion cavalry used large shields which Alexander's cavalry didn't use. So, the name companion cavalry mainly belonged to Alexander's finest horsemen.

Companion Cavalry

         
   

Issus : Alexander's Second Major Victory in Persia

Battle of Issus (333 BC) was the second major victory of Alexander in his Persian campaign. Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC) was famous because it was the last battle between Darius III and Alexander the great where later won a stunning victory but Issus was the first battle where Alexander first time faced Darius and a big Persian army. So, we can say it was the true beginning of his conquest of Persian empire.

Battle of Issus

Prelude : After invading the Persian empire in 334 BC, Alexander won one major victory in Battle of the Granicus (334 BC) against Persian satraps. He subdued the local satraps of west Asia Minor but didn't meet Darius yet. He knew before meeting the main Persian army under Darius, he must neutralize the strong Persian navy. So, he started conquering the coastal cities one by one. This way the Persian navy had to withdraw from that area. On the other hand Darius was started assembling a big army to drive away the Macedonian invaders. After receiving that news Alexander sent his general Parmenion with a portion of his army to block the mountain passage to the Issus (A small city in southern Anatolia ) to prevent Darius from taking it. Alexander followed with his army and took Issus. Now he moved towards Parmenion and joined their forces. Darius knew about the Macedonian presence in western passage so he took the northern route and retook Issus. Here he killed the wounded and sick Macedonian soldiers who were left by Alexander. Alexander was expecting Darius from east so after hearing the news he turned north to meet him. Darius didn't aware that Alexander and Permenion already joined so he also marched towards Alexander believing that he would face the divided Macedonian force. When he realized that he was going to face the main Macedonian army, it was too late to maneuver for the big army he had. So, he occupied the western side of the Pinarus River and started deploying his forces. Alexander soon reached the eastern side of the river and saw Darius was already deployed his forces and was waiting for him. So he also deployed his forces and the battle began.

Armies : Alexander had nearly 40000 men. Around 22000 were Macedonian phalangites and Greek hoplites, 13000 peltasts and nearly 6000 of his Companion cavalry and Greek Thessalian cavalry. On the other hand Darius had nearly 100000 men including 10000 Greek mercenary hoplites, 10000 Persian immortals and nearly 11000 cavalry. The rest were Persian spearmen and archers.

Macedonian Phalangites

The Battle : Because of the narrowness of the terrain, Darius couldn't deploy his army properly. He deployed all his cavalry on his right flank (The beach side) for charge. In the center he deployed his infantry in two lines including himself. Alexander deployed his troops with cavalry on two flanks. On his left flank was Parmenion with his Thessalian cavalry. The Macedonian phalangites and Greek hoplites were placed in center. On his right flank he placed himself with his Companion cavalry. The battle began with Persian cavalry charge on Parmenion's line. Alexander ordered his infantry to cross the river and attack the Persian center and he charged on Persian left flank. The Macedonian center started advancing in rain of arrows and attacked the Persian center. Parmenion's line was holding but started taking losses because he was heavily outnumbered. Alexander succeeded on breaking the Persian left and routed them. Form there he saw that his center and Parmenion's line were taking heavy losses. He needed to act quickly otherwise his army would route. He turned west and attacked the Persian center from behind and left. The panic broke out in Persian line and Darius himself fled the battlefield. Soon, the Persian center broke and routed. The Persain cavalry was in better position against Parmenion but when they saw Darius fled, they also fled the battlefield. Alexander chased Darius but stopped and called off the pursuit. 

The Battle

Aftermath : Alexander executed all the captured Greek mercenaries who were fighting on the Persian side. He started advancing towards Persian capital after this victory. Darius was defeated first time in his life but he didn't give up. He soon started assembling a massive force to crush the Macedonians. Both armies met each other again in Gaugamela, the last battle of Darius. 

Alexander the Great

          

Ipsus : Stepping Stone of Seleucid Empire

Battle of Ipsus (301 BC) was the main and final battle of Fourth  Diadochi War between the successor kingdoms of Alexander the great's empire. This battle was the end of Antigonus I Monophthalmus's influence and life. After this battle the Antigonid dynasty survived but lost the dominance they had before. The battle was fought between Antigonus and his son Demetrius against the coalition forces of Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus.

Battle of Ipsus

Prelude : After Alexander's death his empire was divided between his generals. Soon the rulers started fighting each other for more territory. After three Diadochi wars, Antigonus became the most powerful. After a series of conflicts with other rulers he expanded his territories in Asia and Greece. His next target was Macedonia under the rule of Cassander. After some humiliating defeat by the hand of Demetrius, Antigonus's son, he feared about the fall of Macedon. So, he sought help from Lysimachus, who got Thrace as his share of the empire. They were afraid about the growing power of Antigonus. So, asked other rulers of the successor kingdoms to join in a coalition against Antigonus. Ptolemy and Seleucus were invited. Ptolemy accepted it and mobilized his troops. Lysimachus invaded Asia with his army and captured a vast territory in Syria. Cassender also sent a portion of his army with the invasion force. After getting the news of invasion Antigonus quickly mobilized his troops to face Lysimachus. Lysimachus avoided  the battle and was waiting for Seleucus's reply. Seleucus was in the eastern region of his kingdom fighting Chandragupta Maurya. The war didn't go well for him and he had to give up his Indian territories in exchange of 500 Indian war elephants. In his return path the messenger reached him and he marched towards Lysimachus to join him. Hearing the news of Seleucus's joining in the coalition, Antigonus called for his son Demetrius in Greece. Demetrius joined his father where as Seleucus joined Lysimachus and both armies retreated to their winter quarters. After the end of winter they met in battle near Ipsus (Near Phrygia).

Successor Kingdoms Before Ipsus

Armies : The Antigonid army was around 70000 infantry and 10000 cavalry with 70 war elephants. While the allied army had nearly 64000 infantry, 15000 cavalry, 100 Scythed chariots and the war elephants Seleucus brought with him.

The Battle : Both armies deployed their forces with infantry in middle and cavalry on the flanks. Antigonus deployed his all elephants in front of infantry line. Seleucus also did that but he kept the major portion of his elephants in reserve. The Antigonid army was much more experienced compared to the allied army. The battle started with the elephant charge from both sides. After that both armies advanced their infantry line to meet each other. Demetrius was on the right flank with his cavalry. He attacked the allied left flank. Soon the allied left flank was routed and Demetrius was in hot pursuit. Antigonus was on the left flank of his army and attacked by Lysimachus. The allied center was started to crumble under heavy pressure from more experienced Antigonid center. At that moment Seleucus played his masterstroke. He saw that Demetrius was returning after chasing the allied cavalry. He intercepted Demetrius with his reserve elephants. Demetrius failed to pass that barricade of elephants and was unable to return to the fight in center. Then Seleucus attacked the Antigonid center from the right side with his light ranged cavalry. The Antigonid line soon broke and the infantry routed after taking heavy losses. After that Seleucus attacked Antigonus who was still hoping that Demetrius would return and turn the tide of battle. Soon the remaining soldiers were killed including Antigonus himself at the age of 81.

Aftermath : This battle ended the Antigonid dominance but the Diadochi Wars continued. We can say this battle was the stepping stone of Seleucid empire. Seleucus soon expanded his territory in most of the Asian parts of Alexander's empire and the conflict with other rulers started again. Demetrius fled to Greece and still continued fighting and eventually took Macedon. I will cover the main battles of Diadochi Wars in my future posts.

Seleucus I Nicator

Marathon : The Rise of Athens

The Battle of Marathon was fought in 490 BC during first Persian invasion of Greece. Athens won a stunning victory against numerically superior Persians. That stopped the invasion and increased the prestige and influence of Athens because Sparta didn't fight in this battle. Usually Athens was a naval power but this battle showed the Greek world that Athens could win land battles too without any help from Sparta. This battle increased the rivalry between Athens and Sparta which started the war between these two powers in later stages (Peloponnesian War from 431 to 404 BC).

Battle of Marathon

Prelude : After the Athenian interference in Ionian revolt against Persian Empire, the Persian emperor Darius I wanted to teach Athens and the Greeks a lesson. Athenians not only supported the Ionian revolt, they also tried to influence the other Greek cities within the Persian Empire to revolt. Darius I now wanted to subjugate all Greece specially Athens. So, after crushing the Ionian revolt, he built an armada and sent it to acquire Greek lands for foothold which could be used as base of operation for further invasion. The armada reached Marathon and started landing the troops there. Marathon was not far from Athens so Athenians marched hastily towards Marathon with a small allied force provided by Greek city Plataea. They blocked the two paths of entrance. Terrain of Marathon was mostly marshy and hilly which favored the Athenian tactics of blocking.

Armies : The Athenian and Plateau forces were mostly consist of hoplites and fight in traditional Greek style phalanx formation. The estimated number was 10000 in total. On the other hand the Persians were consist of their archers and spearmen. Because of the marshy terrain Persians were unable to use their cavalry to flank the Athenians on side or rare. The Persians deployed nearly 25000 infantry for the battle as per modern estimate.

Persian Spearmen

The Battle : The battle started after Persians tried to push back the Athenians by breaking their formation which guarded the path by their shield wall. They deployed their infantry and archers to break it. On the other hand Athenians started deploying their own strategy to encircle the Persians from three sides. Their plan was to force the bulk of the Persian troops to fight in the middle. This way they could attack them from three sides and crush them. The Athenian plan worked. After being encircled from three sides panic broke out in Persian army and they routed. Athenians followed them with warcry and heavy fighting started on the beach. Athenians started burning the anchored Persian ships. Many ships were burnt and others fled in panic. The casualties on Persian side was far greater than the Athenians. According to modern estimation, Persians lost nearly 5000 soldiers and 7 ships while the Athenians lost nearly 1000 men. The Athenian casualties mainly occurred during the fight on the beach and on the ships.

The Map

Aftermath : This victory hampered Darius's plan to subjugate Greece. This defeat was a slap on Persian invincibility. He built another huge army for second invasion but a revolt started in Egypt so he had to cancel the plan. After his death his son Xerxes started the second invasion of Greece. On the Athenian side this victory proved their capability in land battles. It increased their prestige and influence on other city states throughout Greece and the coastal city states in Aegean Sea. The battle of marathon still remembered today by the Marathon Run event in Olympics. The messenger who delivered the news of victory from Athens to Marathon died after delivering it from exhaustion. We all know the name Marathon and this the history behind Marathon. 

Marathon Race

Myeongnyang : The Greatest Naval Victory in History

Battle of Myeongnyang (1597) was the turning point of Japanese Invasion of Korea (1592-98). In this naval battle Korean navy under Admiral Yi Sun Sin defeated and destroyed the Japanese moral. He won the stunning victory with 13 warships against 333 Japanese ships. This battle made him a legend and became the national hero of Korea still now.

Battle of Myeongnyang

Prelude : After the japanese invasion of Korea started in 1592, Koreans were fighting for their homeland with everything they had. The admiral of Korean navy was Yi Sun Sin. He reorganized the navy, introduced turtle ship (A fully armored ship) and increased the strength of Korean navy. He prevented any Japanese supremacy in sea. But in the middle of the war he was impeached and imprisoned and almost put to death thanks to the internal politics of Korean court. The admiral who replaced him was a total failure in that role and lost the battles after battles and the Korean navy was almost wiped out in his command. In this dire situation the emperor released and reestablished Yi Sun Sin as the admiral again though only 13 warships were remained when he took the charge. He knew he cant win against 330 ships strong Japanese navy in open sea battle. So, he devised a brilliant and desperate plan to crush the Japanese navy with his 13 ships. That plan made him the greatest admiral of history.

The Map

The Plan : He chose Myeongnyang Strait as the place of battle. This strait was situated in southern Korea. It was full with current, whirlpool and had a narrow shape. The area was usually covered with mist most of the time so that would also give him the advantage. Because of the narrowness of the straight the Japanese couldn't do any flanking move to outflank him. He just needed to lure the Japanese in that straight and force them to battle him there. The Japanese knew him very well and as long as he lived Japanese supremacy on sea would be challenged every time. So, that would be the perfect bait which lure them to him.

Battle of Myeongnyang

The Execution : As per the plan Yi Sun Sin sent a fast war ship to lure the Japanese fleet towards him. That ship ventured near the harbor where Japanese fleet was anchored and lured them to the place of battle. The Japanese thought that was a scout ship and followed that to catch Yi Sun Sin and remove the Korean navy totally this time. 333 Japanese ships entered the straight by following that ship. There they found Admiral was waiting for them with 13 ships. Because of the current the Japanese ships couldn't aim at the Korean ships properly and the current forced the ships to collide with each other. On the other side the Korean ships were raining fire from their canons constantly. The current in this strait changed in every three hours interval. After the northern current had stopped the southern current started. In Yi's order the Korean ships started ramming the japanese ships. Nearly 30 ships were drowned including Japanese admiral Kurushima's ship. His head was hanged in the mast to demoralize the Japanese further. The other ships were all damaged and out of shape and capacity to build up any fight. The loss on the Japanese side was heavy. Almost half of their sailors and marines died in that battle. on the other side Yi lost only 10 men and few wounded and lost no ships. This battle turned the tide of war.    

Yi Sun Sin

Aftermath : The victory over Japanese fleet hampered the Japanese supply line to the land units in Korean peninsula. The land army was demoralized and forced to retreat from their advanced positions. It also opened the way for Chinese navy to reinforce the Korean navy against the Japanese threat. It destroyed the Japanese naval power and supremacy in yellow sea and reduced the chance of future invasions. This victory made Yi a legend and the greatest admiral of human history. Yes greater than world famous Horatio Nelson.