How colonization of India influenced Europe Part - I : New Dawn

Colonization of India had a great effect in Europe. The effect was mostly economic but it also had an indirect impact on shaping the political map of  Europe. In this series we will discuss how the presence of India as a British colony reshaped the history of Britain and Europe. In this part I will discuss how all these started like the first footholds of European powers in Indian soil. British were the last in this list but their ability to play the right card at the right moment delivered them the key of entire India in later stages. Which played a crucial role in their struggle in Napoleonic era and other ages of history.   

Vasco Da Gamma

Ancient Connection : 

The Indian goods and exotic items were all available to Europe through Phoenician traders. Greeks knew about India and they had the misconception that it was at the edge of the world. Through Alexander's conquest the western civilization came to a direct contact with India. In later years the successor kingdoms of Alexander's empire like Seleucid Empire and Parthian Empire in later stages were the main connection between India and Europe. The Roman empire conquered most of the western Europe and became the most successful and long lasted empire of the west. They also had indirect trade relation with India through their eastern borders in Asia. India was famous for its spice, precious stones and other valuable exotic goods in western world.

Medieval Magnets : 

After the fall of Roman empire the new kingdoms of Europe had the taste of Indian goods through Byzantine empire. The geographic situation of Constantinople helped it flourished and became one of the richest city in the world. The Battle of Manzikert (1071) ended the influence of Byzantine empire. That also cost them the monopoly they had in goods from east. During the crusade in 11th and 12th century, the trade with European powers became more direct for a brief period of time. The fall of Jerusalem and other crusader states disrupted that contact again. The only source of Indian goods became Italian city states. At this time (From 13th to 15th century) Europe became more dependent on Italian city states for Indian goods. Venice, Milan and other city states of Italy became wealthy and powerful by this (Specially Venice and Milan). Venetian traders had and maintained a good trade relation with Arabian merchants of Asia. So, they had a sort of monopoly on Indian goods in Europe.  The Islamic merchants from Arabia and ottoman empire also became wealthy and powerful because they controlled the trade route. Indian goods traveled places to places and became costlier in every step of its journey to Europe. When it reached European market it became several times more costlier than its original price.

Impact of Ideas : 

During the renaissance period questioning the old ideas and theories became popular in mass. "Earth is round" this theory was established and that had a positive impact on explorers' minds. If the theory was true then the distant lands could be connected through sea. This idea started knocking the minds of adventurers. "India can be connected through sea and establishing a sea route is possible" this idea was started taking shape. The explorers from  Portugal had a strong belief in this theory. They had already started their venture on the western coast of Africa and discovered the true size of that mammoth continent. So, Vasco Da Gama, a Portuguese noble got the charge of this expedition to find the sea route to India. King Ferdinand provided him three ships and finance. Vasco Da Gama set sail from Lisbon in 1495 with his crew and goods for trade to this uncertain mission. Uncertain because that time it was just an idea. It was on his shoulder to prove that theory was correct.

The Journey of uncertainty : 

The main difficulty to Vasco Da Gama was Africa. This continent is big and that time no one knew how big it was. He started sailing through west African coast line. The sailing continued but there were no end of that wall which was blocking the path between them and India. At last they reached at the bottom of African continent. They faced a strong current there and the area was always covered with thunder storm and mist. They continued their journey through that weather and after three long days at last they passed it. That was discovered by Bartholomew Dias in 1488 and known as Cape of Good Hope. It was the bottom most point of Africa. Now they were in Indian Ocean. The water color was different in this ocean. but they followed their direction to north. They faced many difficulties in their journey. Specially from the Arabian merchants. Who would be obliged to end their monopoly in market ? So, Arabs tried their best to hamper the course of the voyage but never succeeded. After facing many difficulties like pirates and the sabotage efforts from Arabs they finally reached the western coast of India in 1498. The place was called Calicut situated in western coast. They failed to impress the local king with their gifts but they achieved their target. They found the route which could end the monopoly of Arab and Italian merchants and present Indian goods more directly to European market. 

The Voyage of Vasco Da Gama

The Impact :

Though Portugal never did this to help other European nations. Their target was to make Portugal the hub of Indian goods which they achieved for a short period of time. But the route they discovered now opened the door for Europe. Others soon followed like Holland and France. They successively established their trading posts in Indian Soil. Britain was little late in this race and was the last to come. They successively managed to build their trading post at Calcutta (Now Kolkata) situated on the banks of Ganges River in eastern India. The year was 1690 and that was the turning point for Britain. Another thing must be noted, all the powers established the trading posts here were not all direct government enterprises (Only a few had that). They were all private enterprises like Dutch East India Company, French East India Company, Danish East India Company and the most famous of them all British East India Company. The race for power and wealth was started among these private enterprises in Indian soil. We will discuss this power struggle and the effect on their nations in next post. Please do comment if you want to share your idea.

East India Company

Battle of Aegates : The Battle which ended the war (First Punic War)

The Battle of Aegates (241 BC) was the last and final battle of First Punic War (264-241 BC). This battle ended that twenty four years long war between Rome and Carthage. Rome got the victory it needed after losing at Battle of Drepana. Roman navy got back its foothold through the victory of this battle. Carthage tried its best to stop the rise of Rome as a naval power but lack of planning and determination paid at last. We may call the result of this war as the first sign of Roman Empire.

Battle of Aegates (First Punic War)

Prelude : 

After the crushing defeat in Battle of Drepana (249 BC) Roman hard earned naval supremacy over Carthage was shattered. Carthage almost destroyed the Roman fleet and controlled the water. The defeat was so devastating for Romans that they needed seven years to build another fleet. On the Carthaginians part they utilised the victory very well for first few years and controlled the Sicilian water and even raided Italian coast. But sometimes lack of competition resulted in foolish notions and that affected the future. That happened here also. After threat from roman navy was gone Carthage went for cost cutting and they began it with disbanding their fleets because maintaining a big fleet was costly and when no threats existed why should they spend the money on it. That was the dumbest move of Carthage throughout the war. Hannibal Barca's father Hamilcar Barca was commanding the Carthaginian army in Sicily and the situation was not good for Carthage because after the victory of Drepana Carthage shifted its focus to north Africa and ignored Sicily. Hamilcar's army was comparatively small and the lack of Carthaginian ships in Sicilian water made it harder for him. Absence of Carthaginian ships in Sicilian water encouraged Romans to build another fleet. Rome saw their chance and started building their fleet after seven years. The roman citizens paid the price of that fleet because the long war strained roman government. They soon built a fleet of 200 ships and handed over to consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus. The roman fleet sailed for Sicily in 242 BC under command of consul Catulus and praetor Quintus Valerius Falto as second in command. They reached Sicily and started blockading the the Carthaginian foothold Drepna and Lilybaeum unchallenged because no Carthaginian ships were present there. Hammilcar was at Eryx at the time of blockade. The roman plan was to cut Hammilcar's supply and communication with Carthage and they succeeded in it. Soon the situation worsened in Sicily for carthage and they were in hurry to build a fleet. It took them nine months to build a fleet of 250 warships and it was sent to break the blockade under command of Hanno. Though the fleet had more warships than its roman counterpart but it lacked the training and crew because of that haste. The Carthaginian fleet was poorly trained, undermanned and under the command of the general who already lost two crucial battles against Romans in Agrigentum and Cape Ecnomus. So, we can understand the fate of the upcoming battle was already sealed.

Battle of Aegates

Navies :       

The roman fleet was consisted of 200 quinqueremes and marines under consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus and praetor Quintus Valerius Falto. The Carthaginian fleet had 250 warships but the crew and marines were undermanned (An exact figure was not available) under Hanno. 

The Battle :

Roman scouts spotted the approaching Carthaginian fleet. After receiving the news Catulus ordered his fleet to break the blockade and meet the Carthaginians. The wind was blowing in opposite direction of the roman fleet and they already suffered heavy loss in Drepana because of weather. Well that also taught them an important lesson. This time they abandoned the Corvus (The boarding device) for better balance and focused on the training and maneuverability mostly. So, Catulus ordered to strip the ships of mast, sails and other extra weights to make those lighter and more maneuverable. Though Catulus himself couldn't able to lead the fleet because he was injured at that time. So, Falto led the fleet in the battle. The untrained and undermanned Carthaginian fleet was no match for the roman lighter and maneuverable ships in battle. Though they have favourable wind but roman training and innovative idea of their leaders won the battle. Roman ships continuously ramming the Carthaginian ships and after losing more than half of their fleet they gave up and fled. It was a stunning and decisive victory for Rome.

The remains of Battle of Aegate

Casualties :     

The Romans lost 30 ships and another 50 got damaged in the battle. The loss of human lives were uncertain while Carthage lost total 120 ships. 50 of those were sunk and 70 were captured. Around 5000 to 10000 men were captured. 

Aftermath : 

The battle ended the war in favour of Rome. The Carthaginians forced to sue for peace and gave up their Sicilian footholds to Romans. They also paid a heavy war indemnity. Hamilcar didn't surrender to Romans and sent his subordinate Gisco for that formality. Though Sardinia and some small islands left in Carthaginian hands as per the treaty but the balance of power in Mediterranean was shifted from Carthage to Rome. After this war Rome became a strong naval power. The war became the stepping stone for its future empire.   

Battle of Drepana : Greatest Naval Victory of Carthage against Rome (First Punic War)

Battle of Drepana was fought between Carthage and Rome in 249 BC near the coast of western Sicily. The Carthaginian navy got its greatest victory over Roman navy and almost destroyed it. It was so demoralizing for the Romans that they didn't build another fleet or try to challenge Carthaginian navy for seven years. Carthage ruled the Sicilian water for next seven years unchallenged and even raided the Italian coast.

Battle of Drepana (249 BC)

Prelude : 

Roman supremacy on land battles was already proven but astonishing success of their navy in the battles like Cape Icnomus and Mylae highly boosted their moral. The inventions they made to transform the sea battles to land battles worked very well (The invention of corvus, the hook like device to pull and board the enemy ships). The defeat in battle of Tunis stopped the roman attempt to beat Carthage in Africa and forced the Romans to concentrate in Sicily. To drive out Carthage from Sicily, Rome needed to capture their strongholds in the island. So, the roman fleet under consuls Publius Claudius Pulcher and Lucius Junius Pullus besieged the port city and Carthaginian stronghold Lilybaeum. Their target was to cut the city from Carthage and force it to surrender. Well that didn't go according to the plan. A small squadron of Carthaginian ships under commander Hannibal broke the blockade in daylight and delivered the supply. That encouraged more of these attempts and Carthaginians did it more than once. It was a total humiliation for Romans. Their plan was totally disrupted by these trespassing. Their goal of blockade was to cut all the connection with Carthage but the city was well fed and connected with Carthage all along. Those trespassing were happening in broad daylight and defying the roman navy on their face. Rome may have won two battles and gathered more experience in naval warfare but Carthage was still the master of open sea maneuvering. Witnessing the total failure of the siege Pulcher came up with a new plan. The trespasser ships belonged to the Carthaginian fleet anchored in Drepana. So, Pulcher planned a surprise attack on Drepana to beat them and put an end to their effort of supplying Lilybaeum.

Ancient Map of Sicily

Navies :

The Roman fleet was consisted of 123 ships and was determined to destroy the Carthaginian naval power in the region while Carthaginian fleet consisted of 130 ships under the command of Adherbal.  

The chicken incident before Battle of Drepana

The Battle :

Roman fleet started their journey to Drepana in a moonless night to avoid detection. The moonless night was good for cover and surprise attack but it also had its flaws. They avoided the detection but it also hampered the formation of their fleet. So, when sun rose the Roman fleet was in complete disarray and Carthaginian scouts spotted their approach from distance. The element of surprise was totally wasted and Adherbal, the Carthaginian commander, saw that opportunity and took it. He quickly gathered all his ships and sailed out from the harbour to open sea. Another incident happened this time. As per roman custom, before battle they offered food to sacred chickens. If chickens ate the food then it was a good sign but if not then something terrible would happen. Unfortunately the chickens didn't eat the offered food this time and already demoralised and shaken soldiers were certain about their defeat. Pulcher threw the chickens from the ship and tried to convince them by saying "If they don't eat let them drink" but it wasn't enough to boost up the moral. Roman navy was good at close combat and they took that advantage in earlier two battles but in open sea Carthage had the upper hand because of their long experience in naval warfare. So, soon the Carthaginian fleet reached the open sea and formed the battle formation. Roman fleet was now trapped within the Sicilian coast on their back and advancing Carthaginian fleet on their front. Carthaginian right flank attacked the roman rear and which the disorganised and demoralised roman fleet couldn't withstand. It was a crushing defeat for Rome. The roman innovations were useless against the Carthaginian fleet in open sea because of their maneuverability and Carthage used it well in this battle.

The Battle of Drepana

Casualties :        

The casualties were recorded on Carthaginian side while Romans lost most of their fleet. 93 ships were captured or sunk in this battle and 8000 to 20000 men were killed. Pulcher somehow avoided capture and escaped. The remaining ships escaped the battle and returned to Rome. The naval blockade of Lilybaeum was also over with this battle.

Aftermath :

The roman navy lost its momentum and resources to challenge Carthaginian navy for the next seven years. Pulcher was sentenced to exile for the defeat which ended his political career also. Hamilcar Barca (Father of famous Hannibal Barca) was appointed general of the Sicilian front and destroyed the remaining roman fleet under Pullus. He successfully recaptured some cities which were captured by the Romans earlier. The Carthaginian navy got the opportunity and even raided the Italian coast unchallenged in 248 BC. At that point Carthage got the upper hand on Rome but some foolish decisions of Carthaginian senate gave the Romans the life line which they utilised on later years in this long war. 

Battle of Tunis : End of Roman Expedition in Africa (First Punic War)

Battle of Tunis (255 BC) was also known as Battle of Bagrades River. In this battle Carthaginians defeated the roman expeditionary force and ended the roman attempt to beat Carthage in Africa. Xanthippus, a spartan general, made it possible. In his command Carthage was able to defeat superior roman infantry.

Battle of Tunis

Prelude : After a successful landing in Africa the roman expeditionary force performed really well under the leadership of Marcus Atilius Regulus. They won two important battles against Carthage in Battle of Aspis (255 BC) and Battle of Abys (255 BC). After witnessing the poor performance of its infantry Carthage finally took a decision to hire a specialist who could improve the situation. Sparta was the most dared and respected city state of ancient world. Their reputation in battle was legendary. So, Carthage sought to hire a spartan regarding the improvement of its infantry. A renowned mercenary spartan general Xanthippus was hired to assist Carthage against romans. Xanthippus reached Carthage and started his improvement methods. A Spartan style drill system and discipline soon evolved Carthaginian infantry to a strong force. Carthage was now ready to face the roman threat in African soil. On the other hand two easy victories and poor performance of the Carthaginian infantry made roman general Regulus over confident. He was now pursuing glory for himself and wanted to end the war by besieging Carthage before anyone could do it before him. So, he marched towards it. Carthage knew that situation would come so they were prepared and met the Romans near Tunis and the battle began.

The Expedition

Armies : As per the sources, the roman army was consisted of 15500 infantry and only 500 cavalry. On the other hand the Carthaginian army had 12000 infantry, 4000 cavalry and around 100 elephants. Rome relied on their heavy infantry, which was their strength so far while Carthage relied on their superior cavalry and elephants and their infantry was also ready under leadership of Xanthippus.

Xanthippus 

Deployment : The deployment of the roman army was similar to its previous engagements with Carthage. Same traditional infantry in the middle and outnumbered cavalry on the flanks. Xanthippus deployed elephants on first line, infantry on second line and cavalry was divided on two flanks. The Carthaginian phalanx was deployed in the center of infantry line and mercenaries on the right.  

The Battle : The battle was a disaster for Romans. Xanthippus knew the phalanx formation was invincible if it got large open terrain. It would help the phalanx to maintain its cohesion and momentum. It  would also allow him to use his cavalry and elephants more effectively. That battlefield delivered him all he wanted. The battle started with a elephant charge from Carthage which kept the Roman line busy. The superior Carthaginian cavalry outnumbering their roman counterpart 8:1. So, it routed the later in no time. Roman infantry somehow managed the elephant charge but only a few small groups got passed it and attacked the Carthaginian phalanx but defeated. Roman infantry got some success though on Carthaginian mercenary line. They routed them and reached their camp but the battle was already lost that time. The Carthaginian cavalry returned and attacked the roman flanks and the battle was over. The 2000 men who defeated Carthaginian mercenaries only escaped the battlefield and later rescued by the roman fleet.

Xanthippus 

Casualties : The loss on roman side was huge. Their total expeditionary force was crushed only a portion was able to escape. Around 12000 men were died and 500 were captured including Regulus. The loss on Carthaginian side was minimal. Only 800 men died. What happened to Regulus was controversial. Some historians said he was tortured and died after that but many others opposed it. Like Diodorus said his death was natural.

Regulus

Aftermath : This battle showed that Carthage still had power to withstand roman offense and couldn't be defeated in African soil so easily. On the roman side their future plan of invasion in Africa was halted. So, the African theater was excluded from rest of the war and the future battles all took place in sea or in Sicily.